Stephen Gill
in search for peace
==============================
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONALISM IN UNIVERSITIES
Dr. Stephen Gill
==============================
*Presented by Dr. Stephen Gill at the 49th
International Conference of The World University
at Royal College of Agriculture in Cirencester,
England from the 19th to the 24th
of Sep. 1996.
*Appeared in Cyber Literature
(India), V. V1. 11 Dec. 2000, pages 58- 62; also in India Journal
(Canada), March 28, 1997, pages 4 and 22
The seed of internationalism was
sown when nations and different believers in ancient times came into contact
with one another. Its plant was nourished whenever decisions were made by races
and cultural groups to live together in peace. Examples of this from "historical
writings are abundant, mostly in the form of monographs, reports and articles.
Comprehensive surveys are few."1
An early example of the
international character of education is traceable to the city of Athens after
the invasion of Macedonia. Athens did not want compulsory military training any
more. As a result, the education became more philosophical and scientific. Most
of the teachings began to be undertaken by foreigners and the students started
coming from several nationalities, races and faiths. "The Athenian sophists took
pride in the number of their students and in the cosmopolitan range of their
influence."2
Later, under the care of
Alexander the Great, a seat of learning was developed in Alexandria where Greek,
Egyptian, Hebrew, Roman, oriental scholars and philosophers gathered. Several of
them supported the idea of uniformity in education. The educational system in
Europe retained an international character even in and after the thirteenth
century. Latin remained the universal language of the educated class for whom
the local language and national history had no place in education, even though
the Crusades and religious fanaticism grew strong which weakened
internationalism. "With the advent of feudalism in the eighth century, followed
by the Crusades of the eleventh and the twelfth centuries, modern nationalism
finds the roots of its origin."3
The Reformation gave a powerful
blow to the international character of education. The Bible began to be
translated to be made available to the general public, which paved the way for a
deep interest in the local languages. This strengthened the nationalistic
tendencies of feudal lords that influenced the political decisions. "The
German states and the American colonies were the first modern countries that
made education strictly a state or national affair."4 From the
eighteenth century, national education began to receive strong attention from
nearly every government of Europe. History began to serve the purpose of
national consciousness.
A tendency flourished side by
side in favour of the global aspect of education. This tendency was advocated by
statesmen, philanthropists, and also international businesspersons who needed
international understanding for the protection of their investments.
Internationalism in universities
is largely a result of evolution. It has grown stronger today because of the
advancement of technology and science as well as the destruction caused by two
world wars. Internationalism in universities however remains a touchy subject
for academicians. Most of them either ignore or scorn it. Those who are faithful
are not many.
The world of today is crowded
with colleges, universities and academies for higher education. There has never
been a period in history when so many people attended universities. It is also
true that there has never been such a period in history when a large number of
population had so much unrest and nations possessed so many weapons of
destruction. A country, which cannot boast of having good universities, is
considered backward. These seats of learning primarily satisfy the need of their
geographical regions. They owe allegiance to certain regional truths and values.
This leads to the formation of the regional intellectual blocks, roughly like
the political blocks.
In several cases, there is severe
competition among the institutions of higher learning to prepare students for
making money. These universities are based on the thinking that is limited to
the local values and needs. They prepare students to make money in a suffocating
atmosphere of cut-throat competition. Their education is based on
specialization. It is largely because citizens still depend much on their
national leaders.The present system of education promotes industry to give
material comforts. It is based on the instinct of aggression. It trains students
to compete against other students for examination results and to be able to make
more money. In other words, the education of today is to divide.
The education of today divides students further into age groups and secondary, university, technical, commercial education and so on. There is further division and competition within each group for distinction, pitting students against students that further accelerate disunity. This division is something along the lines of rich and poor, upper and lower classes. This type of education does not promote unity, because it is disruptive. It lacks the entire province of moral values. "Our existing systems of education lead right away from social union, dissolve the subtle bonds of love and fellowship, and leave us a nerve-ridden aggressive herd."5
Universities have built walls of
separation because they cater to their local needs. Their education has shut
humans from their fellow-beings. They do not teach how to adjust and live in
society. Curiosity, which is a natural hunger, is often impaired by the
universities because the teachers are usually eager to impart what they know
with authority.
The government control of
education is evident in the west and also in the east. In several cases, control
is financial as well as administrative, organizational and curricular.
Appointments and dismal of professors and their salaries are regulated by the
state, including admission of students and the subjects they are taught. "The
old upgraded system of teaching has now given way to regular classes, set
curricula and set requirements for graduation."6
The universities of today do not
serve the needs of the modern age because they are still storehouses to gather
information and facts. Still students adhere to the old practice of taking
notes, memorizing without using imagination to apply their knowledge in life.
Still they do not see the deeper implications and meanings of their studies.
Almost the same situation, maybe even worse, prevails in developing nations
where "university students still tend to rely a great deal on their memory in
learning, and tend to accept uncritically what is taught to them or what they
read in their books."7
The universities of today are
established for intellectual exploration and for exchange of knowledge. This
work can now be done by machines and technology. The Vice-Chancellor of McGill
University in Quebec, Dr. R.E. Bell admits :
"Universities nowadays are
usually said to be devoted to passing on knowledge by teaching, and to
originating knowledge by research and creative scholarship. Hardly anybody talks
about wisdom any more; in today's world, to talk about wisdom seems faintly
embarrassing. Surely in an earlier day, though universities would have been
described without apology as centres of wisdom rather than of knowledge."8
What we need in these seats of
learning is the teaching of peace, understanding and harmony. What we need is
something that encompasses the study of the understanding of the world community
and the inter-dependence of its people and systems. The old system of education
based on competition should be replaced with courses on cooperation, a sane use
of natural resources and social justice.
Today, we need academies which
are not simply buildings, but associations of people, working within and without
for the welfare of the citizens. Different aspects of peace should be their main
concern. In such institutions, students should be prepared to use their skills
for the betterment of life. The focal point of these universities should be to
pave a way for the emergence of a new civilization that is based on harmony and
cooperation among individuals, ethnic groups, religions, and nations. This
cooperation and harmony is essential because many world problems, including the
problems of war, human rights and ecology are global in nature. Nations need the
universities where education is imparted for the awareness of oneself and for
interdependence. The prime function, as it was in the beginning, should be to
teach humans to think constantly and re-examine the facts to achieve wisdom.
The world is changing fast.
People are encountering a new civilization. But the habits, and the thinking of
people are buried under old systems. It is a serious hindrance to the awareness
of inter-dependence.
"the supreme task of the present
and the coming generation in all countries, surpassing in its urgency any
domestic issue, is the creation of a strong and stable world order. The material
foundation of such an order has already been laid through the invention of new
and revolutionary forms of transportation and communication. All geographical
barriers, including distance, have been surmounted. The earth is now a little
brotherhood. Retreat into the past is obviously impossible; perpetuation of the
present is equally impossible. Any attempt to hold condition in status quo can
only result in chaos and disaster. The only rational course confronting mankind
today is the building on existing material foundations of a comparable
superstructure of social institutions, conceptions, and morals. Although this
superstructure is already in process of development, the task is only begun and
the difficulties in our way are vast and terrifying. The peoples of all
countries are largely unprepared in mind and heart for the fateful decisions
that they are compelled by events to make. Our attitudes and understandings
reflect an age that is gone. Here lies the educational task."9
The present need is for those
institutions which will have teachers as well as students from all over the
world to be in a proper atmosphere to learn and teach about other cultures.
Their campuses will be for humankind, and their students will be communists as
well as non-communists, rich and poor, from all creeds, colours and
nationalities. The students will be scattered throughout the world without
forcing them to travel to a particular nation.
It is not possible to have national schools or universities for international understanding. For international understanding, we need international schools, where the courses are directed to cover humanity; where the teachers come from different nations; where focus is on human culture; where knowledge is given about the value of cooperation, tolerance and respect for other tastes and beliefs; and where teachers and students from different cultural backgrounds break the neck of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism leads to narrow nationalism, imperialism and wars because it teaches that the culture of other groups is inferior and strange. This was the type of society that was foreseen by the Nazi youth that led to the second world war. This may happen again if educators will not promote tolerance and cooperation.
Universities will have to change themselves because the air of change is blowing everywhere. The changes are evident in "the spread of atomic weapons to many nations, the world-wide growth of literacy, the development of a global electronic communications network, the emergence of a truly global cultural milieu and economy, and the expansion of a network of cross-national organizations and associations. ..."10 If education has to have any purpose and meaning, the study of vital issues, such as nuclear proliferation, ecology and related subjects concerning war and peace should be studied at every stage. The purpose of education should be to learn and to teach to resolve conflict through democratic and legal system. "Otherwise, with the earth growing even smaller and the engines of death ever more destructive, preparation for war may become the all-absorbing interest of mankind until the nations are consumed in the purple and orange holocaust of atomic explosion. "11
Francis Bacon, a contemporary of
William Shakespeare, said that knowledge is power. The universities of today
give this power without values and ideals for guidance. That is why knowledge is
becoming diabolical. Its application in the field of physical science is
obvious. The same is true even in the field of arts and literature. It is not
ethical to give power over words, language and rhetoric to an individual to
inflame prejudice in citizens to incite them to kill and be killed in the name
of false god of violence and fanaticism.
A university is "one of the
primary institutions from which may flow some light on the great human problems
which confront man in the contemporary world. And yet the university is perhaps
the most conservative of modern institutions; it is probably the institution
that has the greatest diffusion of authority; and it is perhaps the institution
most resistant to change."12 Instead of solving problems, the
universities of today have become problem themselves.
Education involves the whole
person. The pursuit of truth can never be complete without the moral and
spiritual pursuits which modern universities lack. A student can be expelled
from a university on moral grounds. The same students may ask on what moral and
spiritual grounds the same university stands. The students are expected to be
moral beings, but no principles are given to them to follow. There is danger
when students are trained as intellectual beings without morality. As Newman
says, a university
"is not a birthplace of poets or
of immortal authors, of founders of schools, leaders of colonies or conquerors
of nations. Nor should its purpose be limited to the training of professional
men, though this too falls within its scope. A university education, he urged,
gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opinions and judgements, a truth
in developing them, an eloquence in expressing them and a force in urging them.
It gives him, too, a certain savoir faire, enabling him to find common ground
with his fellows in every class and to conduct his social life with skill and
grace."13
Several great persons in human
history have advocated a change in education for global understanding. Michael
Zwig in his book The Idea of a World University says that at the
end of World War 1, more than one thousand proposals were made to the League of
Nations by concerned individuals, international bodies of scholars,
professionals and also by government representatives to establish a world
university to promote internationalism.
Several businessmen and groups of students backed this idea and they are still backing it. Several governments also sponsored the idea. Those governments include Spain, Mexico, Columbia, China, Poland, and France. They took their suggestions to the League of Nations.
In 1919, Paul Otlet founded something in Brussels that was going to be the first international university. It was the result of the tireless work by Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine who advanced intellectual cooperation to open the door for global harmony. Their noble pursuit led to the formation of the Union of International Associations in Brussels. The idea of a world university was based on cooperation among the League of Nations, international non-government organizations and the national governments. This was "a distinctive characteristic of the interwar peace education movement."14
The League of Nations was
approached for help. Due to politics that divided the League, the university was
not able to receive the expected help. However, it did receive moral support.
In 1923, Professor B.N. Bannerjea from the University of Calcutta urged the
League to establish its own university to keep national interests out of
academic circles, focusing on the common points. The cardinal aim should be to
foster harmony. The same year, the Spanish Government proposed something else,
along the same lines.
The debates continued till 1925.
There were several problems establishing such world institutions. One was the
language problem. Other problems included finances, location, administration on
the global basis, and sponsorship. When the League of Nations was closed, it
was proposed by several members and other individuals to convert its building in
Geneva into a world university. The League of Nations failed to establish a
world university. But it kept the idea alive.
From its beginning, The League of
Nations Committee on Intellectual Cooperation strived to internationalise
universities everywhere by encouraging exchange of students and professors and
courses. Even at the initial session in 1922, this question was proposed and
hotly debated, particularly to organize an international conference of
universities. The idea of establishing a world university was postponed,
considering it unachievable under those circumstances. However, it was proposed
at the second session, to form an international university information bureau.
The proposal was largely appreciated.
After the Second World War, there
was a surge of movements with the same aim. There were exchanges of
publications, students, and professors. Several centres were established for the
study of international relations on the international level. UNESCO was formed
which sponsored seminars, conferences and several projects to develop
understanding on a global basis.
After the Second World War, fresh
proposals were presented to the United Nations. The first that had any impact
was made in London, England, where a committee met in the late 1945 to form
UNESCO. It was suggested that UNESCO should sponsor this university by bearing
some of its operating costs, and to have rotating professors from different
countries.
The United Nations and its
agencies kept evaluating different proposals from time to time. In 1942,
Bertrand Russell urged that an international university be formed. Addressing an
international conference on education in Stockholm 1962, Dwight Eisenhower spoke
clearly in favour of a world university. Great Britain's Sir Alfred Zimmern, an
important contributor to the early planning and development of the UNESCO, as
well as a member of several committees on education of the League of Nations,
wrote and worked for the establishment of world centres of scholarships,
particularly for social sciences. Albert Einstein welcomed the idea of
international higher education in 1949. Henri Laugier, an important figure at
Sorbonne and an important figure also at the United Nations, expressed his
desire for an international university, especially in Africa.
In 1962, (ACWR), The Association
for Commitment to World Responsibility, an organization of students and
professors at the University of Michigan, strongly suggested that the United
Nations should sponsor an institution to train an international police force,
inspection team and a jury. The organization justified its establishment on the
ground that the social and political climate of today needs fresh approaches to
peace.
“In 1969, the late United Nations
Secretary General U Thant took the initiative in promoting a world university by
urging UNESCO to develop the idea further. On the basis of reports from UNESCO
and other United Nations experts, the United Nations General Assembly in 1972
requested the secretary general, in close working relationship with UNESCO's
director general, to set up a committee for the express purpose of drafting the
charter on the United Nations university. The draft charter was submitted to the
twenty-seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly and adopted in
1973."15
In 1969, an organization, titled
The International Association of Educators for World Peace was formed. It was
affiliated with the economic and Social Council of the United Nations and
UNESCO.
The association was established
to promote global harmony and peace through education. It also aimed at
broadening international communication at the personal level for peaceful
co-existence. It held national and international conferences and sponsored
seminars and related projects.
In 1975, a university was
established by the United Nations in Tokyo to find new methods to improve human
life everywhere. The university is not organized along the traditional lines.
Its research programs include peaceful relations among countries, human rights,
maintenance of peace, improvement, proper use of natural resources, human
values, and hunger. Nations, including Japan, Netherlands, and Finland gave
grants. The university does not confer degrees and its focus is on human
survival and concerns of the United Nations. The university gives fellowships
for developing countries.
In 1980, The United Nations
established University For Peace in Costa Rica to undertake research on
disarmament, ecology, international relations, peace education and human rights.
Michael Zweig advanced the idea
of a world university something along the lines of Paul Otlet in 1919. Michael
Zweig was convinced that there is a dire need for the teaching of
internationalism in universities that he states in his wonderful book, titled
Idea of a World University:
“I began a study of the idea of a
world university and the problems connected with establishing such an
institution in the United States or elsewhere. I had become convinced over the
years, partly through my work at Sarah Lawrence College and the free association
we had there with members of the United Nations delegations and the secretariat,
that the world community of intellectuals badly need an institutional base quite
different from any now available. It would be a place where the world's variety
of national cultures, ideologies and forms of knowledge could be brought
together in a new kind of centre-- a world university which would match on an
intellectual scale what the United Nations was designed to accomplish in a
political dimension."16
The United Nations was not able
to form such an institution, but at the same time, it has not failed entirely as
The League did. It keeps implementing the idea of world universities for peace
in different ways. One large step towards this direction was taken by the United
Nations in two special sessions on disarmament. The 1982 session launched a
world Disarmament campaign to inform and educate nations and people and to
receive support for disarmament. Support from the national governments was not
that encouraging, but several considerable steps were the direct result of this
campaign in several parts of the world.
The United Nations is also
involved at present with two important schools, if not universities. One is the
United Nations International School, located in New York City, where students
receive instructions from the teachers of different countries. Most of these
students are from the families of the UN Secretariat and delegates. The other is
the United Nations Institute for Training and Research. It is also located in
New York city. It was established in 1963 to train international diplomats.
The League of Nations could not
take a practical step towards forming a world university under its guide and
control. Its successor, the United Nations, has taken some steps, but still
remains far from the goal. Both have discussed and proposed such a university
and debated over the language, control, finances, locations, administration,
objectives, faculty and similar subjects. Both, the League of Nations and the
United Nations, however, have provided considerable food for thought.
What these two influential and
strong universal bodies have failed to achieve, two individuals were able to
achieve almost single-handedly. One of them was in India-- Robinder Nath Tagore
who formed Vishva Bharti, an international institution in Santiniketan. While
discussions were going on around the League of Nations during 1920, Robinder
Nath Tagore founded Vishva Bharti in Santinikatan, India, to support
international education. Before him, all organized activities for education for
world peace took place in Europe and the West. Therefore, Tagore deserves
recognition for his efforts in the East. He deserves recognition also because
whereas the world governments failed, including the League of Nations, Tagore
was able to achieve alone in the private sector. That is not an ordinary
achievement.
Tagore was a thinker, poet,
novelist, an artist, a musician and a playwright. He was extremely prolific. He
invited thinkers and intellectuals from all over the world to speak at his
institution on international issues. He received the 1913 Nobel Prize in
Literature. He is no longer among us, but his Visha Bharti University is still a
strong influence on the thinking of the world scholars who still visit this seat
of learning.
The First World War produced a
visionary giant and doer in Robinder Nath Tagore in the East. The Second World
War produced its visionary giant and doer in Dr. Howard John Zitko in the West.
Dr. Zitko founded The World University Roundtable on the 21st of December in
1946 in Los Angeles, California. He proposed to establish a university before an
audience of futuristic thinkers, professional educators and supporters. The
organization was incorporated to establish a world university on a world campus
with a world program. Its work of years led to the inauguration of the World
University in the State of Arizona, where it has its headquarters.
The World University aims at
promoting the new concept of non-traditional, experiential and tutorial
learning, emphasizing on world order studies, environmental concerns and global
peace. From its Desert Sanctuary Campus, the university functions through its
International Secretariat in cooperation with affiliated schools and societies
to pioneer new methods of learning. The campus maintains a growing specialized
library on advanced subjects and also publishes books to further the objectives
of the university.
This and considerably more has
been achieved by a single soul Dr. John Zitko, a tireless worker for peace
through education. Dr. Zitko is quiet and a good listener, but not that quiet
when there is a question of world peace. He promotes internationalism through
his talks, writing and also by inspiring others in any possible way he can. He
is one of those rare species of humankind who live for a goal with irresistible
sincerity.
The long and lonely constant
struggle of Dr. John Zitko, for a university for peace in the global village,
for a new concept of education, for a new age, from a new direction, is
admirable. Thinkers and statesmen began to talk of this concept right from the
days of the League of Nations without knowing how to go about it. But Dr. Zitko
has done it and now it has grown into a mighty oak. In the words of Dr. Zitko,
"At the heart of the University is its broad ecumenical vision of the New World
and its dedication of mankind's continuing universalization."
The World University is
represented in several countries by national offices. Dr. Stephen Gill, an
IndoCanadian writer and poet, represented the World University for Canada for
several years as its Chief Delegate. The University awarded honorary doctorates
to several deserving candidates from different nations on the recommendations of
Dr. Stephen Gill.
Internationalism has been
promoted also through international conferences of scholars, meetings of
scientists, the exchange of students and faculty members, the efforts of UNESCO,
the development of trade and transportation, the introduction of peace as a
subject in educational institutions and the formation of numerous associations
and groups in different nations for this purpose. Most reformers will agree that
war and poverty are interlinked and both pose a serious threat to the survival
of life. "Solutions can only be reached by the creation of a more enlightened
citizenry which can convert fear to fair mindedness and rational greed to
international cooperation. Then, there will be hope for peace and a future for
humanity."17 The Preamble to the Constitution of UNESCO states,
"since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the
defence of peace must be constructed."18
"Much will be gained for the progress of the world by an exchange of experiences in education as in other scientific and educational fields. Educational systems cannot be transferred from one country to another, but ideas, practices, devices, developed under one set of conditions, can always prove suggestive for improvements even where the conditions are somewhat different."19
We still live in a world in which
internationalism is forced upon us once in a while when there are international
gatherings. The situation should be the other way around. To do so, the global
village needs the help of educators at every level. " It will require an
education that fosters a sustained sense of necessity and concern, gives a clear
view of the magnitude of the task, and prepares positively for participation in
world citizenship."20
Education, both formal and
informal, plays a large part in designing events. The world has witnessed
inhumanity meted out to humans in different parts of the world before the First
World War, between the wars, during the Second World War, after that and even
today. The claws of barbarity are still around us. They have become rather
sharper, cold and dangerous. Death and disease are common now. Often we are
appalled by the reports of countless people being wasted in violence for no
purpose. In order to avert such senseless avertable horrors, humans will have to
prepare themselves and their children and children's children so that all could
breathe peace and could move around on this planet for self-fulfilment. To
achieve it, the world will have to work collectively.
Herbert Read describes the
pessimistic picture after the Second World War when he says:
"Europe is materially bankrupt
and mentally exhausted. We cannot escape the conclusion that the epoch that
began with the Renaissance, and which in spite of interruptions and sudden
checks has formed a coherent tradition for more than five centuries, is now at
an end. It is not a question of violent destruction, or of political disruption.
These are the visible consequences of two world wars within a period of thirty
years. Invisibly an inner disease, a canker, as we call it, has been eating away
the sources of our European vitality, and any realistic diagnosis must recognize
that the cure is not one which can be adequately defined by words like planning
and reconstruction. A new source of vitality, springing up within the body
itself, must be discovered and released."21
What Herbert Read saw in Europe in 1949 is the situation everywhere. The world is going through a social revolution. Geographically, technologically and more or less economically the world is a single unit. It happened so fast with science that humans have not been able to adjust their traditions, institutions and attitudes. Our loyalties are still tribal even after the
evolution of years. Ethnocentrism
and narrow national pride are still destructively strong. All nations have not
been able to get out of the ring of this weakness. In this respect all countries
are developing nations. All men and women are human by birth and therefore they
belong to the nation of humans first.
In order to build this nation of
humans, the world needs the help of education. To prepare the world for a safe
and enjoyable future, we need the hands of teachers and cooperation from
everywhere, including from intellectuals. To preserve our future, we need the
universities, which are based on the rock of internationalism.
A global security is becoming
more important than the individual security of a nation. Greed, aggression and
destruction are the symptoms of putting the parts before the whole, which is
greater than the parts. The world has to think in terms of the whole, not the
parts. Education for global citizenship is essential for that thinking.
Education for planetary survival is increasing, yet not enough to protect
the whole. The universities must be internationalised to shape the holistic
character of peace.
===========================
FOOTNOTES
1Brickman, William W.
Bibliographical Essays on Comparative and International Education,
Northwood Editions, Pa., 1975, p. X
2Stoker, Spencer.
The Schools and International Understanding. The University of North
Carolina Press, 1933, p. x
3Stoker. Ibid.,
p.X1
4Stoker. School and
National Education. P. X1V
5Read, Herbert.
Educations for Peace. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1949, p. 60
6Sarruf, Faud. Ed.
The University and The Man of Tommorow, The American University of Beirut,
1967, 110
7Sarruf, Faud. Ed.
The University and The Man of Tomorrow, p. 109
8The University and
Society. The McGill University (Canada), 1972, p.V111.
9Arndt, Christian and
Evrett, Samuel. Education for a World Society. Books for Libraries Press,
New York, 1951, p.4
10Remy, Richard and
others. International Learning and International Education in a Global Age,
Bulletin 47, The National Council For Social Studies, Washington, D.C. 1975, p.9
11Arndt, Christian and
Evrett, Samuel. Education for a World Society. op.cit., p.4
12Ross, G. Murray.
Imagination and the University. p. V
13Jasper, K. The
Idea of the University. Peter Owen : London, 1959, p.9
14Hermon, Elly. Peace Research, vol. 19, May 1987, p.2
International Encyclopaedia of
Higher Learning relating to the World University. vol. 3, B.C. Jossey-Bass
Publishers, 1977, pages 2232-2233.
16Zweig, Michael.
The Idea of a World University. Southern Illinois University Press, 1967,
p.V
17Remy, Richard and
others. op.cit. p.V
18Preamble to the
Constitution of UNESCO.
19Kandel, I.L.
Educational Yearbook, International Institute of Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1924, Intro.
20Arndt, Christian and
Evrett, Samuel. Education for a World Society. op.cit., p.4
21Read, Herbert.
op.cit., p.66
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Carson, T.R. "Curriculum Research
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Kilpatrick, William. "Creation of
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